Forensic Science in Wildlife Investigations PDF

Preface

The interest in wildlife crime investigation has increased greatly in the last few years due in part to an increasing awareness of the impact of man on the environment. Ten years ago there were few papers published in mainstream forensic journals on the use of scientific tests for non-human samples. This has been altered profoundly with an ever-increasing number of research groups applying scientific tests to both animal and plant studies. It is against this growth area that this book is designed to cover the developing areas of forensic science that can be applied to wildlife crimes. In part the tests described in the following chapters are applied from their use in other areas of research, predominantly from human-based research. This is primarily a reflection of the lack of research funding made available for wildlife crime investigations. It is interesting to note how crimes against animals and the environment create media interest and public concern, yet the prosecution of these cases is of a low priority, as is the allocation of government funding on research.

The book is aimed at those with a particular interest in forensic wildlife investigation but who are not necessarily active in the area. The scientific material is written at a level such that anyone with an interest in biology will be able to understand the material provided. Basic knowledge that is required is provided in separate boxes to prevent the flow of the chapter being interrupted. Within the chapters there are case examples to illustrate the application of the scientific test. Those involved with the prosecution of wildlife crimes, both from the legal and police professions, will gain from the case examples provided.

The rationale for requesting tests depends on the law that may have been breached. International law covering the cross-border trade in endangered species is subject to regulations through the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES). The role of CITES is explained in chapter 2 by John Sellar, of the CITES Enforcement Division, and sets the scene for the following chapters that cover the applications of scientific tests to answer questions relevant to wildlife crime investigations.

The range of wildlife forensic science tests available depends on the question posed. In wildlife crimes a prime question is ‘What species is this?' This is because there is extensive legislation, both international and national, on the trade or illegal killing of defined species. The unambiguous identification of species can be determined by a number of tests depending on the sample type. If there is gross morphology, then visual identification may be possible and sufficient. This might be for eggs of protected birds, turtle shells of protected species or skins from protected big cats or bears. If visual inspection is not possible due to the incomplete nature of the sample, but hairs or feathers are available, then microscopic inspection is an option.

The use of microscopy in forensic science is paramount and a standard tool in species identification. If this simple technique can answer the question asked, then there is no reason to proceed with more expensive tests. The methodology and application of microscopy is described in chapter 3 by members of the Wildlife Institute of India and draws upon extensive experience in this area.

It may be that the type of material is inappropriate for microscopy, and if the species present is required to be identified, then molecular techniques can be employed. DNA testing is now a standard method in the identification of species from trace materials. DNA is also able to link two or more samples to the same individual organism. These linkage types of testing are in many ways similar to the DNA profiling technique used in human identification that is already familiar to the forensic science community. It is entirely relevant that two chapters describe the use of DNA in, firstly, species testing (chapter 4) and then linkage methods, including paternity testing (chapter 5).

A question that is increasingly asked is ‘From what part of the world did this sample originate?' In part DNA can answer this question, provided that there is extensive research prior to the test, but the use of naturally occurring isotopes can answer this same question. This is a relatively new field, with the potential application only now becoming realised and utilised; these methods of isotope analysis are described in chapter 6. Development of this type of testing is inevitable in the future, and it may play a much larger role in forensic science in time to come.

The range of species that fall within the remit of wildlife crimes is extensive, ranging from ferns and orchids to great whales. The number of plant species protected by CITES is much greater than animal species, yet mammalian species are those that receive the highest profile. The plight of the tiger, rhino and great panda is reported in the media, yet the extinction of tree species rarely receives attention. Many amphibian and reptilian species are threatened either by loss of their habitat or the trade in live species or their body parts, yet their plight receives little attention. The following chapters focus on animal wildlife crimes, although the reader should be aware that many of the methodologies can be applied equally to nonmammalian animal species and plant species. The case examples used are predominantly from cases involving mammalian species, which may not be a reflection of the actual wildlife crime situation but, rather, of those alleged crimes that are reported and acted upon.